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The human microbiome has evolved in tandem with humans for hundreds of thousands of years, shaped by diet, lifestyle, and environment. As space agencies and commercial ventures set their sights on Mars and Exploration Class Space Missions (ECSM), traveling beyond Earth’s biosphere and into biologically closed, artificial environments will present new challenges for maintaining human health, microbiota and microbiome stability, and life support systems as this complex symbiotic relationship faces unprecedented disruption. This chapter explores the concept of biomes: Earth’s naturally evolved environments of essential communities and life forms, which have evolved over 2.5 billion years, and macrobiomes, ecosystems established in isolated, closed environments such as submarines, the International Space Station (ISS), and eventually, missions such as those planned for Mars.

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